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Radiation methods fall into ionizing and non-ionizing classes. Gamma rays, X-rays, and electron beams are ionizing; they can cause nucleic-acid damage directly and through free radicals. Their penetration and processing characteristics vary, affecting which products and packaging they can treat. UV-C at 254 nm damages nucleic acids and is used for surface, air, and water disinfection, but it is not reliable for full sterilization because spores can resist it. Radiation is a dry, low-temperature option for some heat-sensitive disposables, but material changes or loss of drug potency can make products unsuitable. The lesson also introduces dose setting, dosimetry, validation, microbial resistance, and safety controls as parts of a controlled sterilization process.